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The History Of
Football
Football,
American, distinct type of football that developed in the United
States in the 19th century from soccer (association football)
and rugby football. Played by professionals and amateurs
(generally male college or high school teams), football is one
of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of
participants and millions of spectators annually. The forerunner
of American football may have been a game played by the ancient
Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the
number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal
line by kicking, throwing, or running with it. Classical
literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its
rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. Most modern
versions of football, however, originated in England, where a
form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent
centuries football became so popular that various English
monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game
because it took interest away from the military sport of
archery. By the middle of the 19th century football had split
into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these two
sports included the football association game, or soccer (the
word being a slang adaptation of the three letters, s-o-c, in
Association), and rugby, in which players ran with the ball and
tackled. Modern football evolved out of these two sports.
The
Playing Field and the Ball
The football playing field is rectangular in shape, measuring
100 yd (91.4 m) long and 53.5 yd (48.9 m) wide. At both ends of
the 100-yard dimension, white lines called goal lines mark off
the entrances to the end zones. Each team defends one end zone.
A team must carry, pass, or kick the ball into the 10-yd (9-m)
end zone on the opponents' half of the field to score. Lines
parallel to the end zones cross the field at 5-yd (4.5-m)
intervals. These lines give the field a resemblance to a large
gridiron. Another set of lines, known as the sidelines, runs
along both sides of the field. In addition, two rows of lines,
called hash marks, run parallel to the sidelines. The hash marks
are 53 ft 4 in (16.3 m) from each sideline in college and high
school football, and 70 ft 9 in (21.6 m) from each sideline in
the National Football League (NFL). Each play must begin on or
between the hash marks. Before each play, the officials place
the ball either between the hash marks or on the hash mark
closest to the end of the previous play. Situated in the middle
of the rear line of each end zone are goalposts, consisting of a
10-ft (3-m) vertical pole topped by a horizontal crossbar from
which two vertical upright posts extend. In college and
professional football, the posts are 18 ft 6 in (about 5.6 m)
apart. The football consists of an inflated rubber bladder
encased in a leather or rubber cover. The ball is an extended
spheroid, having a circumference of 28.5 in (72.4 cm) around the
long axis and 21.25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs
between 14 and 15 oz (397 and 425 g).
Playing
Time
A game of football is divided into four periods, known as
quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. The
first two periods constitute the first half; the second two
comprise the second half. Between the halves, a rest period,
usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted the players, who
may leave the field. The teams change halves of the field at the
end of each quarter. The clocks stop at the end of each quarter
and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when
designated by the officials.
The
Players
Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11
players. Each team tries to move the ball down the field to
score in the end zone defended by its opponents. During a
football game the teams are designated as the offensive team
(the team in possession of the ball) and the defensive team (the
team defending a goal line against the offensive team). Players
involved in kicking situations are known as the special teams.
The 11 players of the offensive team are divided into two
groups: 7 linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an
imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and a
backfield of 4 players, called backs, who stand in various
positions behind the linemen. The lineman whose position is in
the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the
left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of
the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right
guard is the right tackle; similarly, on the ends of the line
are the tight end and the split end. The back who usually stands
directly behind the center and directs the play of the offensive
team is known as the quarterback. In a balanced backfield
formation, or “T-formation,” the fullback stands behind the
quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either
side of the fullback. Teams often use wide receivers in the
place of tight ends, split ends, halfbacks, or fullbacks. Wide
receivers line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest
of the formation. The defensive team consists of a row of
linemen, who comprise the defensive line, a row of linebackers,
and a collection of defensive backs, known as the secondary. The
defensive line can use any number of players, though most teams
use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen principally are
responsible for stopping the opposition's rushing attack and, in
passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. The
linebackers line up behind the defensive line and, depending on
the situation, are used to stop runners, pressure the
quarterback, or cover the opposition's receivers. Teams usually
employ three or four linebackers. The secondary is comprised of
cornerbacks, who cover wide receivers, and safeties, who cover
receivers, offer support in stopping the rushing attack, and
pressure the quarterback. The secondary commonly consists of two
cornerbacks and two safeties.
Protective
Equipment
To protect themselves from the often violent bodily contact that
characterizes football, players wear elaborate equipment,
including lightweight plasticized padding covering the thighs,
hips, shoulders, knees, and often the forearms and hands.
Players also wear plastic helmets with guards that cover most of
the face.
The
Officials
Play is supervised by impartial officials. Professional and
major college football programs use seven officials: a referee,
an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line
judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow
penalty flags. They blow the whistles or throw the flags to
indicate that an infraction of the rules has been committed. The
referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The
referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters
not under other officials' specific jurisdiction, and enforces
penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead (out of
play) and when it may again be put into play, and uses hand
signals to indicate specific decisions and penalties. The umpire
makes decisions on questions concerning the players' equipment,
their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the
linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each
play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained
or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers
connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must
particularly watch for violations of the rule requiring players
to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play.
The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this
purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that
is considered official.
Game
Procedure
At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the
presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks
off or receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half,
these conditions are reversed—that is, the team that kicks off
in the first half receives the kickoff to start the second half.
During the kickoff, the ball is put in play by a place-kick from
the kicking team's 35-yd (32-m) line, or the 30-yd (27.4-m) line
in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL kickoff was moved
from the 35-yd line in 1994 to increase the importance of the
kickoff return. The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball,
while the opponents spread out over their territory in a
formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it
back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the
field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or
pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the
player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped, known as
being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed
when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and
arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the
ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop
play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was
downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of
bounds. A scrimmage (action while the ball is in play) then
takes place. Before scrimmage begins, the team on offense
usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the
next play it will use to try to advance the ball. A coach either
signals the play choice to the team from the sidelines, or the
team's quarterback chooses from among the dozens of rehearsed
plays in the team's repertoire. The defensive team also forms a
huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each
play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals.
After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line
up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the
quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that
the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an
audible and shout the coded directions for a new play. Play
begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken
signal, snaps it—generally to the quarterback—by handing it
between his legs. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback
can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it.
During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may
check the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained
by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The
player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm
to ward off potential tacklers. The offensive players check
defenders, or try to force them out of the way, by performing a
maneuver known as blocking. Good blocking is considered a
fundamental technique in football. Perhaps the most spectacular
offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown
in a forward direction to an eligible player. The ball is nearly
always thrown by the quarterback, and those who may catch it
include the other three backs and the two ends. A forward pass
may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the
line of scrimmage. A lateral pass may be made anywhere on the
field anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to
prevent the attacking team from advancing the ball. The
defending players may use their arms and hands in their attempt
to break through the opponents' line to reach the player with
the ball. The defending team tries to keep the offense from
gaining any distance, or to stop the offense for a loss by
tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the
line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10
yards (9 m) in four tries, called downs. After each play, the
teams line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team
on offense fails to travel 10 yards (9 m) in four downs, it must
surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team
will often punt on fourth down if it hasn't gained at least 10
yards (9 m) in its previous three tries. In punting, the kicker
drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. By
punting, a team can send the ball farther away from its own end
zone before surrendering it, thus weakening the opponent's field
position.
Methods
of Scoring
The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing
team within the regulation playing time. In college football, a
game can end in a tie if both teams have scored the same number
of points at the end of regulation time. In case of a tie in an
exhibition or regular-season professional game, the teams play
an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first
team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored
at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is
allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are
allowed, and the teams play until one scores. A team scores a
touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the
opposing team's end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A
touchdown is worth 6 points. After a team has scored a
touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an
opportunity to score an additional one or two points with no
time elapsing off the game clock. In college football, the
offensive team lines up 3 yd (2.7 m) from the goal line of the
opponents and passes, kicks, or runs with the ball. A running or
passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line
counts for 2 points. A conversion by place-kick that propels the
ball between the goalposts and over the crossbar counts for 1
point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2
yd (1.8 m) from the goal line. A conversion attempted by
place-kicking the ball is worth 1 point. In 1994 the NFL
introduced the running or passing 2-point conversion. On
offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field
goal, which counts for 3 points. A field goal is scored by means
of a place-kick, in which one player holds the ball upright on
the ground for a teammate to kick. For a successful field goal,
the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the
crossbar. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the
scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Finally, a
defensive team earns two points for a safety when it causes the
team on offense to end a play in possession of the ball behind
its own goal line. If the offensive team downs the ball behind
its line intentionally, in certain situations, such as after
receiving a kickoff, the play is known as a touchback and does
not count in the scoring. When the offensive team suffers a
safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play.
Modern
Football
American football was made popular by teams representing
next to a running back. The NFL's newest
formation of the 1990s, the “Run and Shoot” offense, also
resembles Warner's formation. With Warner's innovations, wing
formations came to dominate the NFL. Coach Zuppke at Illinois
ran single- and double-wing formations, often sending four or
five receivers downfield in pass patterns. Some teams would use
a short-punt formation, with the quarterback and wings set on
different sides, providing a more balanced look. At Notre Dame
in 1923 and 1924, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen
offense. At the beginning of a play, Rockne set up the backs in
a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in the famous
“Notre Dame Shift,” the backs would shift out of the box and
into a single or double wing. In later years, other coaches
imitated Rockne's innovation and achieved similar success. For
example, former Washington Redskins' coach Joe Gibbs implemented
an offensive strategy called the “Explode Package.” Modeled
after Rockne's Notre Dame Shift, the Explode Package helped the
Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins in the 1983 Super Bowl. In
Gibbs's system, the backs and receivers would jump into new
positions before the snap, thus unsettling the defense. Although
talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and parts of the 1940s
seldom completed 50 percent of their passes, while many were
even less successful. A major cause of these low percentages was
the primitive nature of pass-blocking schemes. With little
protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming
rushers. In the 1940s Paul Brown, the coach of the Cleveland
Browns, installed a blocking system which transformed the
passing game forever. Brown changed the system by arranging the
linemen in the form of a cup. They pushed most incoming
pass-rushers to the outside. Anyone who penetrated the line was
met by a firmly planted fullback named Marion Motley. From that
point on, the passing game achieved a new significance. Other
teams implemented strong blocking lines, providing the
quarterback with more time to release the ball. The contemporary
game of the 1980s and 1990s is noted for its exciting and
effective passing plays in both the professional and college
ranks. Artificial turf, the surface in many of the nation's
stadiums, provides excellent footing for quarterbacks and
receivers. With strong protection, talented quarterbacks make a
perceivable difference to a game. For example, quarterback Joe
Montana keyed the San Francisco 49ers' three Super Bowl
victories in the 1980s. Montana, who benefited from good
protection, could instinctively read defenses and had the
ability to deliver the ball accurately to his receivers while on
the move. In college football, the University of Miami
Hurricanes dominated the game in the late 1980s with a flashy
passing game and a quick defense that could react effectively to
the pass.
Development
of Defensive Strategies
One striking aspect of modern football is its emphasis on
defense as well as offense. This trend began after World War II
(1939-1945), when college teams were allowed free substitution
of players—that is, a player could enter and leave the game an
unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play
during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the
modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players
enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to
play defense. Such a system has fostered the development of
individual skills and specialization among players. Defensive
football has acquired an extensive terminology of its own. In
some ways defense is more complicated than offense, because
defensive teams have fewer restrictions on their manner of
lining up. Generally, however, the defensive formation is
determined by the way the offense lines up. For example, when
defending against opponents who are expected to throw many
forward passes, a team might use a formation with a four-player
line of two ends and two tackles. Three linebackers would stand
directly behind the front four. In addition, two cornerbacks
placed wider and farther back could defend against mid-range
assaults. Two safeties would position themselves deeper to
protect against longer aerial attacks. Most of the innovative
thinking by coaches in the NFL during the 1970s came on defense.
Offensive statistics plummeted as defenses dominated. The newer
game demanded speed at every position, in addition to strength
and bulk. Great linebacker units with catchy names such as
Doomsday in Dallas, Pittsburgh's Steel Curtain, Minnesota's
Purple People Eaters, and the Rams' Fearsome Foursome dominated
offenses. Teams turned the free safety position over to
ferocious hitters such as the Raiders' Jack Tatum and Dallas'
Cliff Harris. Rough, physical cornerbacks such as Pittsburgh's
Mel Blount and Oakland's Willie Brown employed tight
bump-and-run techniques on receivers downfield.
Professional
Football Today
The present-day NFL game is immensely popular. It is played
during the late summer, through autumn, and into January.
Professional teams play 4 exhibition games before the start of
the regular season, followed by 16 games in the regular season
and then playoff games, when they qualify for the playoffs.
Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to
recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team
receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the
season. The NFL is a big business for players, owners,
advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL
franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition
to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities
often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and
better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic
incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Raiders
moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the
Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana,
in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from Saint Louis, Missouri, to
Phoenix, Arizona, in 1988. Other teams have agreed to stay only
with the promise of new facilities by their host cities.
Throughout the years, other consortiums have sought to
capitalize on the economic potential of the sport. For three
years in the 1980s a new professional spring league, the United
States Football League (USFL), competed with the NFL. The NFL
lost players to the USFL, and NFL teams had to pay higher
salaries to keep other players from leaving. However, the USFL
soon folded, with much of its more talented personnel entering
the NFL.
Super
Bowl
The Super Bowl is the final contest of the professional season
and determines the league's annual champion. Currently the Super
Bowl routinely finishes among the all-time top 50 programs in
television ratings, and the 1994 game reached an estimated 750
million viewers around the world. Now probably the most
important single-day sporting event in the United States, the
Super Bowl had more modest beginnings. In 1967 the champions of
the American Football League (which merged with the NFL in 1970)
and the NFL met in what was called the AFL-NFL World
Championship Game. The name was later shortened to Super Bowl,
named after a child's toy, the Super Ball. In this first game,
the Green Bay Packers beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The
Los Angeles Coliseum, site of the game, fell far short of a
sellout, although tickets were only $10 each. In comparison, the
highest ticket price at the 1994 Super Bowl reached $250, with
scalpers illegally charging more than twice that much.
Rule
Changes and Modern Developments
The game of football has a history of constant rule changes.
Rule changes have been implemented to bolster the excitement of
the game of football and to increase the game's safety. By 1906
the game was extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths
had occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite
its popularity on campuses. United States President Theodore
Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that
the game must be made safer. As a result, football leaders
revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were
outlawed. In a constant attempt to maintain public interest in
the game, NFL rulemakers review trends in their sport. For
example, in the early 1970s, the rulemakers brought the hash
marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more
room to throw wide. The move, which increased scoring and made
the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game.
Ten NFL runners gained more than 1000 yards in one season (1972)
for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo
Bills' running back O.J. Simpson rushed for more than 2000
yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a
single season. However, the passing game eventually suffered as
defenses quickly adjusted. The Pittsburgh Steelers had a
stranglehold on the NFL during the 1970s, with four Super Bowl
victories. The dominant defensive athletes the Steelers put on
the field shut down the wide-open passing attacks that had
developed in the previous era. By 1977 scoring was the lowest it
had been since 1942, while offensive touchdowns had fallen to
their lowest levels since 1938. The rulemakers enacted serious
measures after this low-scoring 1977 season, fearing a loss of
public interest in the defense-dominated game. They established
a zone of only five yards from the line of scrimmage in which a
bump by a pass defender was permitted. Offensive linemen could
extend their arms and open their hands on pass blocks. Offenses
responded slowly, but by the 1980s they began to score again,
and a renewed spirit of defensive innovation began. To counter
the improved passing game, a new breed of defensive player
emerged. While speedy defensive backs covered equally fast wide
receivers, a player called the rush-linebacker emerged with one
specialized duty: pressuring the quarterback. With no
pass-coverage responsibilities, the fast and strong
rush-linebacker focused his attention on the quarterback or the
running backs. The New York Giants' Lawrence Taylor, perhaps the
best player of all time at this position, demonstrated the
importance of the role by leading New York to a Super Bowl
victory in 1987. Soon longer passes became more difficult to
complete. Defenses choked off the short pass and defied the
quarterback to throw long, assuming that their rush would get to
the quarterback first. Additionally, zone defenses, which had
been used since the 1920s, became more complex and harder to
read. Offenses stalled. Domed stadiums, with their overpowering
crowd noise, made communications a problem. Teams resorted to
kicking field goals in greater numbers than ever before, rather
than risking the attempts at touchdown passes. Artificial turf
helped improve the accuracy of the kicks, but scores still fell.
In order to stall this trend, the league's rulemakers stepped in
again after the 1993 season, penalizing teams attempting field
goals. Now, when a team misses a kick, its opponent receives the
ball at the point of the actual kick rather than on the line of
scrimmage. Because the ball is usually kicked from about seven
or eight yards behind the line, coaches must factor the rule
into their strategic planning.
The
Draft and Free Agency
In 1936 the NFL adopted the Draft Rule, a system that assigned
graduating college players to various league teams in such a way
that a fair distribution of talent was assured. The threat of a
lawsuit caused the NFL to change its original policy in 1989 and
allow collegiate underclassmen to enter the draft. Juniors are
now eligible, and many collegiate stars turn professional before
exhausting their college eligibility. Free agency emerged in
1992 in a settlement of a lawsuit filed in 1987 by the NFL
Players Association. The association formed in 1956 when players
began to demand improved conditions. The union brought the suit
in 1987 on behalf of players demanding freedom of movement
between teams. The NFL's Management Council initially objected
to any form of free agency, so in 1987 veteran players held a
three-game strike to protest. Now in place, free agency is
accompanied by a salary cap that limits teams to an annual
player payroll of $34.2 million per team. The NFL's free agency
system presents a number of new questions for the league. For
many owners it is an attractive means of curtailing the league's
free-spending owners. For the coaches and some players, on the
other hand, it presents significant problems. As teams near the
salary cap, they are compelled to cut expensive and aging
veterans who may still be useful. A player whose contract has
expired can move to another team at will. Squads that have been
carefully built through years of planning can lose their entire
identity in the space of a few weeks when prominent players
switch teams.
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